Going Global 2014
i
Can higher education
solve Africa’s job crisis?
Understanding graduate
employability in Sub-Saharan Africa
www.britishcouncil.org/education/ihe
Acknowledgements
Going Global 2014
1
Acknowledgements
The British Council commissioned Institute
of Education, University of London to lead
this research project, which has been
carried out in partnership with Kenyatta
University, Kenya; University of Education,
Winneba, Ghana; University of the Free
State, South Africa; and University of
Ibadan, Nigeria.
This policy brief was authored by Tristan
McCowan of the Institute of Education with
valuable input from Tony Reilly, Director,
British Council, Kenya; and David Steven
of River Path Associates.
2 Going Global 2014
Introduction
Africa’s economic outlook is bright. Five
of the world’s top ten countries in GDP
growth are in the region, with foreign
direct investment up, inflation slowed and
remittances at record levels 1. Yet will that
growth be sustained? And with what impact
for its societies? A major challenge for the
region is creating enough jobs for its
growing population. A recent World Bank
report 2 estimates that as many as 11 million
young people in Sub-Saharan Africa will be
joining the job market every year for the
next decade, and the risks associated with
growing numbers of urban youth without
meaningful occupation are high.
It is widely recognised that long-term
economic growth can only be achieved
through investment in a highly skilled
workforce. In the context of the knowledge
economy, higher education has become
particularly critical in this regard. Following
decades of relative neglect as development
agencies focused their efforts on expanding
primary education systems, there is now
renewed acknowledgement of the key role
that universities can play in economic and
social development. The debates on the
post-2015 agenda have been characterised
by this renewed emphasis (though have
stopped short of recommending a specific
goal for higher education). As the high-level
panel report states: ‘What matters is not just
having technology, but understanding how
to use it well and locally. This requires
universities, technical colleges, public
administration schools and well trained,
skilled workers in all countries.’ 3
Yet despite the rapid expansion of higher
education enrolments, there are serious
concerns about the ability of Africa’s
universities to produce the kinds of
graduates who can drive the region forward.
The challenge posed
Higher education is booming in Sub-Saharan
Africa. Between 2000 and 2010, enrolments
more than doubled, increasing from
2,344,000 to 5,228,000 4 (see Figure 1).
While the enrolment rate in the region is
still only seven per cent (compared to
29 per cent worldwide) 5, over the last 40
years the higher education system has been
expanding at almost twice the global rate.
Nevertheless, there is a potential time bomb
of pent-up demand. The ‘youth bulge’ in the
region, and increasing value attached to
university-level study, has meant that even
these high levels of expansion have not
been enough. In 2010 the population in the
18–23 age group in Sub-Saharan Africa was
100,805,000 6. This figure is projected to
grow by more than 50 per cent by 2030.
Even if recent high rates of expansion are
maintained for the next two decades, rapid
population growth will dampen the gains in
terms of gross enrolment ratio (GER).
Investment in secondary education will
further boost demand. The ratio of upper
secondary enrolment in Sub-Saharan Africa
compared to tertiary enrolment is 4.7, more
than twice the global average 7. Given the
inevitable expansion of the secondary
1.
World Bank (2014) Africa’s Pulse: an analysis of issues shaping Africa’s economic future. Volume.9 (April). World Bank (2014) Data tables. Available at:
http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?order=wbapi_data_value_2012+wbapi_data_value+wbapi_data_value-last&sort=desc
2. World Bank (2014)
Youth employment in Sub-Saharan Africa: Africa Development Forum. Washington: World Bank.
3.
The Report of the High Level Panel of Eminent Persons on the Post 2015 Development Agenda (Digital Report)
http://report.post2015hlp.org/digital-report-executive-summary.html
4. UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) (2009)
Global Education Digest 2009: Comparing Education Statistics Across the World: Montreal: UIS.
5. UIS (2012) These figures refer to the
gross enrolment rate: that is, the number of students (of whatever age) enrolled divided by the total population of
the relevant age group.
6. United Nations (2011)
The World Population Prospects: The 2010 Revision: Volume I: Comprehensive Tables New York: United Nations Department of
Economic and Social Affairs.
7.
UIS (2009).
Figure 1: 18 to 23 age group population and tertiary enrolment
in Sub-Saharan Africa (thousands)
0
20,000
40,000
60,000
80,000
100,000
120,000
140,000
160,000
Tertiary enrolment
18–23 population
2030
2020
2010
2000
1990
1980
1970
Source: United Nations (2011); UIS 2009; 2012.
Going Global 2014
3
Introduction
system – fuelled by the increasing attention
to this level by international donors in the
post-2015 discussions – this ratio may even
increase if concerted efforts are not made.
Growth of the private sector and distance
education may facilitate the expansion in the
short term, but without government financial
support for students and improvements in
communications infrastructure, access will
still not be possible for the majority.
Figure 2: Secondary and tertiary enrolment in Sub-Saharan Africa (thousands)
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
35,000
40,000
Tertiary enrolment
Secondary enrolment
2008
2000
1990
1980
1970
Source: UIS 20118.
8. UIS (2011)
Financing Education in Sub-Saharan Africa. Meeting the Challenges of Expansion, Equity and Quality: Montreal: UIS.
9. UIS (2010) Trends in Tertiary Education: Sub-Saharan Africa. Montreal: UIS.
10. There are currently 217,000 teaching staff for sub-Saharan Africa compared to 10,983,000 for world (UIS 2012). The student staff ratio across the region
is currently 24.1 compared to a global rate of 16.2.
There are significant inequities of access.
University is still for the privileged few in
Sub-Saharan Africa. Only 38 per cent of
enrolment is female, and significant
inequalities exist between different socio-
economic, ethnic and regional groupings.
Many talented young people are thus
prevented from taking up the opportunity for
further study that could help drive forward
the region’s development. Sub-Saharan
Africa also has the highest rate of outbound
student mobility of any region, leading to
significant risk of brain drain 9.
Quality is already under threat. Just as the
introduction of free primary education in
many African countries led to strains on
infrastructure and drops in standards, so
a rapid expansion of the higher education
system presents similar dangers. Even at
current levels of access, universities report
inadequate facilities and numbers of teaching
staff. There are already 50 per cent more
students per lecturer in Sub-Saharan Africa
than the global average, and it is not clear
where the new recruits will come from to
fuel this rapid expansion. 10
Too few graduates gain the skills they
need to find work. Nowhere is this
quality challenge more evident than the
transition to the labour market. Graduate
unemployment rates are high in many
countries and employers across the region
complain of a lack of basic, technical and
transferable skills. Given the pressures for
expansion outlined above, absorption of
graduates into the labour market will be a
significant undertaking.
4 Going Global 2014
It is this final challenge – that of preparing
graduates for the workplace – that will form
the principal focus of this policy brief. The
publication forms part of the British Council-
funded study
Universities, Employability and
Inclusive Development, focusing primarily
on four Sub-Saharan Africa countries:
Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya and South Africa.
These four countries have different levels
of access to tertiary education (see Figure 3),
different income levels and diverse political
and social conditions, but all face the
common challenge of how to ensure
universities provide the highest quality
of preparation for young people.
The study aims to provide policy makers
with compelling evidence on how they can
build a stronger link between their higher
education sector and the labour market,
ensuring graduates generate the growth and
strong societies Africa needs if it is to release
its potential.
Figure 3: Tertiary education enrolment rates
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
World
Sub-Saharan
Africa
South Africa
Nigeria
Kenya
Ghana
12%
4%
10%
18%
7%
30%
Source: DHET, 2011; UIS 2014 11.
11. Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) (2011).
Higher Education Management Information System (HEMIS). Pretoria: DHET. UIS (2014) data
tables: tertiary education. Available at: www.uis.unesco.org/datacentre/pages/default.aspx
Going Global 2014
5
Graduate employability
in Sub-Saharan Africa
What we know
Employability can be defined as the
possession of relevant knowledge, skills and
other attributes that facilitate the gaining
and maintaining of worthwhile employment.
While there are extensive discussions in the
media about graduate unemployment and
the ‘skills gap’ (between the skills graduates
have, and those that are needed in the job
market), there is in fact a surprisingly weak
evidence base. The assumption is that a
linear causal relationship exists between
the input of university study, the attributes
that graduates take into the job market,
and their success in obtaining work, as seen
in Figure 4:
Figure 4: Employability – a linear progression?
1. University study
2. Enhanced
graduate attributes
3. Employment
However, there are a number of other
factors affecting progression between
stages 1, 2 and 3. Graduate capacities
are influenced by learning experiences
outside the university, particularly in the
family and previous schooling. Second, a
range of factors beyond one’s employability
attributes affect entry into employment,
such as the availability of jobs, graduates’
social networks, and possible discrimination.
The interaction between these influential
factors is not sufficiently well understood.
There are, however, three areas in which we
do have existing knowledge:
1. There is graduate unemployment
in Sub-Saharan Africa
All four countries in this study have concerns
about graduate employment. In Nigeria the
unemployment rate is as high as 23.1 per cent
for those with undergraduate degrees.
Although the rate for university graduates is
much lower in South Africa (5.9 per cent 12),
it is high for those with diploma or certificate
level qualifications. Unemployment figures
specifically for university graduates are
not available in Ghana and Kenya. However,
across the 25–29 age group as a whole
(the range corresponding most closely with
recent graduates) the unemployment rate is
41.6 per cent in Ghana 13, and 15.7 per cent
in Kenya 14. It has been estimated that, on
average, it takes a university graduate five
years to secure a job in Kenya 15.
As will be discussed further below, the
understanding of ‘employment’ contained
in these figures is ambiguous (i.e. whether
including own account work as well as wage
employment), but the challenges are clearly
evident. In many cases the reality is worse
than is indicated, since many of those in
employment are not engaged in graduate
level work, or are not in work that
corresponds to their degree area.
Graduate employability in Sub-Saharan Africa
12. Van der Berg, S and Van Broekhuizen, H (2012). ‘Graduate Unemployment in South Africa: A much exaggerated problem’; Stellenbosch Economic Working
Papers: Vol. 22, No. 212.
13. Ghana Statistical Service (2012). 2010 Population and Housing Census: Summary Report of Final Results: Ghana Statistical Service. Accra:
Sakoa Press Limited.
14. Omollo, J (2012). ‘Youth Employment in Kenya: Analysis of Labour Market and Policy Interventions’.
FES Kenya Occasional Paper, No. 1.
Figures are for 2005.
15. Omolo, OJ (2010).
The Dynamics and Trends of Employment in Kenya, IEA Research Paper Series, No. 1/2010, Nairobi: Institute of Economic Affairs.
6 Going Global 2014
2. Employers are dissatisfied with the
skills and qualities of graduates
There is widespread concern about the work
readiness of graduates. While employers
are generally satisfied with the disciplinary
knowledge of students, they perceive
significant gaps in their IT skills, personal
qualities (e.g. reliability) and transferable
skills (e.g. team working and problem solving).
Research carried out in Nigeria 16 has
shown a significant ‘skills mismatch’ between
employer requirements and graduates’
display of skills in the workplace, particularly
in relation to communication, IT, decision-
making and critical thinking.
Figure 5 shows the importance attached to
different skills by graduate employers in
South Africa (grey bar), as well as employers’
level of satisfaction with the actual skills of
graduates (blue bar):
Figure 5: Importance of graduate skills
Very satisfied
Very important
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Foreign language
IT/computer literacy
Business acumen
Networking
Leadership
Customer orientation
Self promotion
Self awareness
Numeracy
Planning action
Flexibility
Oral communication
Proactivity
Commitment
Interpersonal skills
Problem-solving
Team working
Willingness to learn
39%
86%
28%
85%
12%
83%
20%
74%
20%
72%
17%
70%
17%
66%
14%
64%
15%
59%
17%
53%
12%
51%
23%
50%
14%
49%
9%
43%
16%
41%
8%
30%
20%
29%
7%
2%
Source: SAGRA survey 2013 17.
3. Universities have severe
quality challenges
A recent review 18 commissioned by DFID
assessed existing research on the impact of
tertiary education on development. While in
a range of contexts there was seen to be a
positive effect on macro-economic growth,
individual incomes, broader capabilities
and strengthening institutions, the impact
was limited by a number of factors –
particularly quality.
There are some universities in Sub-Saharan
Africa of the highest quality, and pockets of
excellence across the region. However, as
discussed above, expansion in the context
of limited public funding has placed the
system under significant strain. At the major
public universities in Kenya, for example,
there are now as many as 64 students for
every member of academic staff 19. In many
cases, lecturers lack adequate qualifications
and preparation themselves, and transmission-
based pedagogy and rote learning are
commonplace. Universities have also suffered
a severe lack of physical resources, including
buildings, laboratories and libraries. While
South Africa has better infrastructure,
there are low completion rates, with 40 per
cent of students dropping out in the first
year and only 15 per cent finishing in the
allotted time 20.
16. Pitan, OS and Adedeji, SO (2012). ‘Skills Mismatch among University Graduates in the Nigerian Labour Market’.
Journal of US-China Education Review, 2,
pp. 90–98. Dabalen A, Oni B and Adekola, OA (2000):
Labour Market Prospects for University Graduates in Nigeria. The Nigeria University System
Innovation Project Study.
17. South Africa Graduate Recruiters Association (SAGRA) (2013) SAGRA Employer and Candidate Survey 2013.
18. Oketch, M, McCowan, T and Schendel, R (2014).
The Impact of Tertiary Education on Development: a Rigorous Review. London: Department for
International Development. The review covers all low- and lower middle-income countries, but includes many from Sub-Saharan Africa.
19. Commission for University Education (CUE) (2013). Institutional Audit Report 2013. Commissioned by CUE, Kenya.
20. Council on Higher Education, (CHE) (2013). A Proposal for Undergraduate Curriculum Reform in South Africa: The Case for a Flexible Curriculum
Structure. Report of the Task Team on Undergraduate Curriculum Structure, Pretoria.
Going Global 2014
7
What we don’t know
One of the greatest challenges facing
Sub-Saharan Africa is in fact one of robust
research and evidence on which to base
policy. The review of the impact of tertiary
education on development referred to
above also identified a severe lack of
research – particularly as regards the
effectiveness of policy reforms or local-level
interventions. Furthermore, for many
countries there is a lack of basic statistical
information relating to higher education
enrolment, quality and outcomes, and even
a lack of background data from censuses or
household surveys. In relation to graduate
employability, lack of evidence is in fact
a global phenomenon with only a small
number of high-income countries (e.g. USA,
UK and Australia) having developed data
sets in this area.
There are three critical areas in which we
need to enhance knowledge:
1. The nature and causes of
graduate unemployment
With the partial exception of South Africa,
for the countries in question there is a lack
of robust information on the labour market,
on transitions from university to work,
and the link between disciplinary area and
employment prospects. In addition, the
notion of ‘unemployment’ is context specific,
and care is needed in interpreting statistics.
It has even been suggested that in
Sub-Saharan Africa, unemployment is a
‘privilege’ of the wealthy, with their greater
financial security enabling them to wait for
an ideal job, while the less well-off have
to engage in a range of provisional income
generating activities 21.
While in some cases employers are
unable to recruit because of lack of suitable
applicants, there are multiple causes of
unemployment, involving complex macro-
economic questions. According to the
recent World Bank report on youth
employment in Sub-Saharan Africa 22,
only 16 per cent of jobs in the region are
in the wage sector, with the rest in family
farming and household enterprises. The
extent to which graduate unemployment is
due to a skills gap, or to a simple lack of jobs
is as yet unresolved.
2. What the qualities and needs
of graduates are
Most claims about graduate attributes are
anecdotal. Beyond completion of degree
courses, there is a severe lack of information
on the knowledge, skills and values that
graduates actually possess. Mostly we rely
on surveys of employer perceptions – but
even these are lacking in some countries.
There is consequently little opportunity
to compare across contexts, and over time.
The OECD is developing a tool for assessing
core skills – the Assessment for Higher
Education Learning Outcomes (AHELO) –
but as yet it is being used predominantly
in high income countries. In addition, there
is a strong need for research assessing
student perceptions of university quality
and their own employability needs.
Graduate employability in Sub-Saharan Africa
21. Teal (2000).
Employment and Unemployment in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Overview, www.csae.ox.ac.uk/conferences/2000-OiA/pdfpapers/teal.PDF
22. World Bank (2014). ‘Youth employment in Sub-Saharan Africa: Africa Development Forum’. Washington: World Bank.
8 Going Global 2014
3. What universities should be doing
Finally, a much stronger evidence base is
needed in relation to the kinds of responses
that universities should make to these
challenges. Without doubt, employers have
significant responsibilities in the preparation
of graduates, but universities nevertheless
have their own critical role. In this area,
research is lacking even in high income
countries. While universities have expended
considerable effort in ensuring that students
gain the skills required by employers, we have
just a handful of studies that actually gauge
the impact on employment outcomes 23.
Research in eight universities in the UK has
found a positive effect on employment
outcomes of work placements and employer
engagement in course design and delivery,
but no significant effect of departmental
teaching of employability skills. This form of
research needs to be rolled out in a range
of settings in order to develop a more
comprehensive understanding.
To date, the responses to the employability
challenge in the four Sub-Saharan Africa
countries have centred around updating of
curricula and orienting course content
towards employer needs; expansion of work
placement programmes; and introduction
of entrepreneurship courses. Nigeria, for
example, has made entrepreneurship
education compulsory in all federal
institutions. The impact of these initiatives,
however, is not yet known.
23. Melink, M and Pavlin, S (eds.) (2012).
DEHEMS Employability of Graduates and Higher Education Management Systems: Final report of DEHEMS project,
University of Ljubljana. Graduates Northwest (2013). Evaluation report: The North West Graduate Employability Support Project, University of Cumbria.
Frigerio, G Cartwright, L and Bimrose, J (2010).
Narratives of Employability: Effective Guidance in a Higher Education Context, Warwick:
University of Warwick.
Going Global 2014
9
Graduate employability in Sub-Saharan Africa
Universities, employability and inclusive development
research study (2013–16)
The British Council has commissioned
a three-year research and advocacy
study to support the development of
higher education systems in four
Sub-Saharan Africa countries, and for
comparative purposes, the UK.
The project is led by the Institute of
Education, University of London, in
partnership with the University of
the Free State, South Africa; Ibadan
University, Nigeria; Kenyatta University,
Kenya; and the University of Education,
Winneba, Ghana.
This study aims to develop a strong
knowledge base to support universities
in enhancing the quality of their
provision, particularly in relation to
graduate employability. The project
analyses trends and practices at the
macro level – assessing policy on higher
education, and trends in national level
access and employment – and at the
micro level – conducting in-depth case
studies of diverse types of universities,
including academic and technical, and
public and private institutions. The UK
is also integral to the project, given the
well-established initiatives relating to
employability in the country, and the
project will assess evidence relating
to effectiveness of interventions, as
well as the potentials of partnerships
between UK and African institutions.
The project has the following key aims:
• To generate in-depth understanding
of the current context and needs of
higher education systems, including
perspectives of students, academic
staff, policy makers and employers.
• To identify innovations and best
practice in the five countries, develop
institutional scorecards and use the
quantitative and qualitative findings
to build models of effective change.
• To engage key stakeholders and
develop university partnerships
to set in motion processes of
institutional development to
enhance graduate employability.
10 Going Global 2014
Three pathways
Solving the graduate unemployment problem
is not something that universities can do
alone; the task involves co-ordinated efforts
between diverse segments of government
and society. Nevertheless, there are
compelling reasons for enhancing the quality
of university education, both to improve
individual life chances, and also to contribute
to the broader development of society,
fostering innovation and strengthening
citizenship and democracy. Graduates must
be well prepared for obtaining work, but
also for making a positive contribution to
their workplace and to society as a whole.
In order to improve the quality of their
preparation of students, universities must
focus on three areas of work, conducted
simultaneously:
1. Improve the quality
of taught courses
Sound teaching and learning quality in
degree programmes is the
sine qua non
of enhancing graduate employability. There
is little point in providing tailored initiatives
if the basic building blocks are not in place.
Analytical, problem solving and written
communication skills, for example, depend on
high quality teaching and learning provision.
At present there is extensive evidence of
the poor learning environment for students
in Sub-Saharan Africa countries. Some of the
change required to address this challenge
involves significant structural reform: for
example, decreasing the student-lecturer
ratio and improving infrastructure. But there
are also more affordable interventions, such
as pedagogical development for existing staff,
and enhancing student voice in relation to
teaching and learning.
Innovative practice 1: active and collaborative learning in Rwanda
As part of its post-conflict reconstruction, Rwanda has prioritised improving
the quality of its university sector so as to foster innovation and technological
development for the knowledge economy. In line with these aims, the Faculty
of Architecture and Environmental Design at the University of Rwanda College
of Science and Technology has introduced a range of innovative teaching and
learning approaches, including the use of active and collaborative learning,
adoption of varied and open-ended assessment, and the provision of extensive
opportunities for student and faculty feedback. The Faculty has also worked
to achieve an appropriate balance between academic challenge and student
support, including constructing a progressive programme curriculum structure
that scaffolds the student experience by gradually increasing requirements
while decreasing the level of instructor support. Research has shown that these
changes have brought a significant improvement in the critical thinking capacity
of its students.
Source: Schendel 2013 24.
24. Schendel, R (2013). A Critical Missing Element:
Critical Thinking at Rwanda’s Public Universities and the Implications for Higher Education Reform
(PhD thesis). London: Institute of Education.
Going Global 2014
11
25. CHEC (2013).
Pathways from University to Work. Wynberg: Cape Higher Education Consortium.
26. Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (BIS) (2011).
Supporting Graduate Employability: HEI Practice in Other Countries: BIS Research Paper
Number 40. London: BIS.
27. Frigerio et al. (2010).
2. Enable a broader learning
experience for students
Research shows that experiences outside
the classroom can be pivotal in enhancing
employability. In a study 25 conducted in the
Western Cape, South Africa, for example,
after field of study, the factor in university
background most influential in securing
successful employment outcomes was
students’ prior engagement in extra-mural
activities. Experiential learning in the
community – service learning, volunteering
etc. – as well as on-campus, through student
societies and other extra-curricular activities
should be facilitated. Employers increasingly
value global perspectives and understanding
of diversity, and these qualities can be
developed through these forms of
engagement on campus and beyond.
Innovative practice 2: Macquarie University Global Leadership Programme
Macquarie University in Australia has established a Global Leadership Programme
to help students prepare more effectively for the rapidly changing and complex
global workplace. This credit-bearing programme involves experiential learning,
such as international volunteering, student exchanges or internships, as well as
colloquia on diverse topics relating to leadership and global citizenship. Ethical
integrity and cross-cultural understanding are fostered through work experience
in diverse contexts, combined with self-reflection sessions within the university.
Graduates of the programme are seen to be better equipped to operate in
multicultural environments, assume leadership positions and understand
global issues.
Source: BIS 2011 26.
3. Provide targeted employability input
Beyond these general learning experiences,
more specific provision is also required to
inform students about career opportunities,
to enable them to reflect on their personal
aptitudes and develop them further where
necessary. Careers advisory services are an
obvious focal point in this regard, as well as
job fairs and other interactions with employers.
A research study 27 at Warwick University in
the UK has shown the importance of one-to-
one careers interviews, although they are
hard in practice to resource for many
universities. Other innovations include the
web-based
Gradlink developed by the
University of the West of England, which
connects international students in the UK
to employers in China, Malaysia, India and
Africa, as well as providing careers advice.
Targeted skills enhancement programmes
also play an important role, whether focusing
on entrepreneurship, ICT or presentation
and communication skills. Finally, closer
links are needed with employers, in terms
of updating curricula and involving industry
representatives in course delivery, as well
as providing quality work placements.
However, a nuanced understanding of
graduate needs is required. Industry,
technology and the employment market
are rapidly changing, and it is hard to see
what will be needed in the next decade –
both in terms of programmes and their
content. Making a direct correspondence
between the perceived needs of industry
and the university curriculum may not be
the best solution. Transferable skills and
critical thinking that will allow graduates to
adapt to make a positive impact on a rapidly
changing economy and society are essential.
Three pathways
12 Going Global 2014
Innovative practice 3: Business enterprise in the curriculum
All students at the University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne in the UK have the
opportunity to undertake a Business Enterprise Module. This module allows
students to set up and run a real company, supported by a businessperson and a
range of advisers from legal, sales, public relations and banking backgrounds. As
well as gaining an award, and a better understanding of the business world, a
number of students have continued their business ventures after completing
their degrees.
Source: Bottomley and Williams (2006) 28.
These three pathways are expressed through
three interlocking learning spaces: classroom,
campus and community.
Figure 6: Embedded learning spaces
Classroom
Campus
Community
‘Classroom’ here represents all formal
learning related to degree courses. Beyond
these formal activities, ‘campus’ refers to
the learning spaces afforded by other
opportunities within the university, including
interactions with a diverse student and
staff body, involvement in student societies,
and engagement in workshops and skills
programmes. Community is understood
in its broadest sense, involving local,
national and global levels. This final sphere
represents learning outside the university –
whether through work attachments,
voluntary placements or other experiences.
The key element here is the interaction
between the different levels. Learning from
within the ‘classroom’ can enhance activities
in the wider campus and community; in
turn, the experiential learning from work in
the ‘community’ can be reflected on within
the classroom, enhancing the theoretical
knowledge. To provide an effective learning
experience capable of improving graduate
employability, universities need to pay
attention to all three of these spheres.
In turn, the effectiveness of these spaces
in promoting meaningful learning depends
on wider enabling conditions: the quality
of primary and secondary education, the
existence of a supportive institutional
governance framework and conducive
national policies.
28. Bottomley A and Williams, H (2006).
Employability: Higher Education Institutions Engaging with Employers:
a guide to international best practice in engaging employers in the curriculum, Mansfield: Quality Assurance Agency.
Going Global 2014
13
Towards takeoff?
Towards takeoff?
Africa stands at a crossroads in relation to
higher education development. If countries
can effectively invest in enabling access for
the increasing numbers of ambitious school
leavers, while at the same time ensuring
quality provision and successful transition
to the workplace, then the subcontinent will
reap substantial benefits from the youth
bulge. Without doubt, universities cannot
solve the jobs crisis alone, and co-ordinated
action across all sectors, including macro-
economic policy, is necessary. Yet providing
high-quality university education is central
to the task. Failing to do so will hamper
economic growth, weaken democracy and
good governance, and leave a generation
without the opportunity to pursue their
ambitions for a better future.
In achieving these goals, equity of access
is a pressing concern. In the majority of
African countries, and in public and private
sectors, only those from the wealthiest
backgrounds can obtain a place, and
numerous talented and ambitious young
people go without. But access is not
enough. Rapid expansion of primary
systems has shown us the dangers of simply
pulling down the fences without attention to
quality. A university degree certificate can
open doors, but without a rich learning
experience underpinning the degree, it
cannot change lives, release potential and
transform societies.
Creating university systems of the highest
quality requires political will and resources,
but also research and analysis. While
there is an unmistakable ground swell of
concern and energy for change around
graduate employability, too often policy
and institutional initiatives are hampered
by a lack of evidence on which to base
decisions. The
Universities, Employability
and Inclusive Development project grapples
with this challenge head-on, working with
institutions and governments to develop the
knowledge-base and shared experiences
necessary for forming Africa’s graduates
in the 21st century.
© British Council 2014 / E108
The British Council is the United Kingdom’s international organisation
for cultural relations and educational opportunities.
