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Toward a Theoretical Framework
for Information Science
Amanda Spink
The Pennsylvania State University
spink@ist.psu.edu
Abstract
Information Science is beginning to develop a theoretical framework for the modeling of users’ interactions with information retrieval (IR) technologies
within the more holistic context of human information behavior (Spink, 1998b). This paper addresses the following questions: (1) What is the nature of
Information Science? and (2) What theoretical framework and model is most appropriate for Information Science? This paper proposes a theoretical
framework for Information Science based on an explication of the processes of human information coordinating behavior and information feedback
that facilitate the relationship between human information behavior and human interaction with information retrieval (IR) technologies (Web, digital
libraries, etc.).
Keywords: feedback, information science, human information coordinating behavior
Introduction
Nature of information science
To begin, we examine:
What is the nature of Information Sci-
ence? Information Science seeks to understand the complex
process that involves and requires a number of information-
related activities: human information seeking and retrieving be-
haviors; organization of a collection of texts, and more recently
images, sounds or multimedia, that bear some cognitive content;
an intellectual representation of such texts, be it derived by hu-
mans directly or indirectly by a variety of algorithms; intellec-
tual ways and means of searching and retrieval by users; and the
systems and techniques to accomplish all of these. The complex-
ity of human information seeking and retrieving is derived not
only from these very difficult processes, but from the direct
involvement of human generators and users of texts in
information systems, bringing in cognitive, affective, social and
situational (problem, task) variables.
In other words, Information Science is not only a technical but
even more so a cognitive, social, and situational process. With
the marriage of computers and telecommunications, Information
Science is based on facilitating interactive information proc-
esses, involving information feedback and human information
coordinating behaviors. All these concepts provide the building
blocks for deriving a general framework for Informatics.
Theoretical Framework
Second, the paper deals with the question:
What theoretical
framework and model is most appropriate for Information
Science? Information Science research is concerned with how
humans create, seek, retrieve and use information; particularly
human interactions with information systems that now include
digital libraries and the Web. Information Science processes
include human creating, seeking, retrieving and using informa-
tion; particularly human interaction with information systems.
Information Science focuses on many different processes that
occur over time, including a human information problem that
initiates information behavior related to a human problem state,
cognitive state and knowledge state (Ingwersen, 1992, 1996),
including information seeking behavior (Kuhlthau, 1993), hu-
man searching behavior with information retrieval (IR) systems
(Saracevic, 1996,1997), with interactive issues such as feedback
(Spink, 1998b; Spink & Saracevic, 1998) and relevance (Spink,
Greisdorf & Bateman, 1998).
In other words, information seekers coordinate a number of ele-
ments, including their cognitive state, level of domain knowl-
edge, and their understanding of their information problem, into
a coherent series of activities that may include seeking, search-
ing, interactive browsing and retrieving and constructing infor-
mation (Kuhlthau, 1993).
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In particular, this paper introduces and elaborates on the concept
of
human information coordinating behavior (HICB) as an
important linking process for Informatics that binds together the
many processes involved in human information seeking and
retrieving. The development of our understanding of informa-
tion-related processes necessitates a theoretical and empirical
explication of the important nature and role of HICB. The next
section of the paper proposes a theoretical framework for the
key process of human information coordination behavior.
The Binding Process: Human
Information Coordinating Behavior
HICB is
an integrating behavior that binds and draws to-
gether processes at the heart of Information Science. Human
information coordination binds and draws together other proc-
esses at the heart of human information seeking and retrieving.
Information Science research focuses on many different aspects
of information coordinating behavior, including modeling hu-
man information behavior (Wilson, 1997), information seeking
behavior (Kuhlthau, 1993), human searching behavior with IR
systems (Saracevic, 1996, 1997; Belkin, Cool, Stein & Theil,
1995; Ingwersen, 1992, 1996) and processes central to human
information seeking and searching such as relevance (Spink,
Greisdorf & Bateman, 1998), feedback (Spink, 1997a,b), repre-
sentation and interaction.
A growing number of researchers are working towards a more
integrated view of human information seeking and searching
(Spink, 1998b). However, without human coordination of vari-
ous elements of the human information seeking and searching
process there would be no process. Human information coordi-
nation behavior is not a phenomenon unfamiliar to the models
and processes of concern to informatics. However, as an implicit
process, its nature, manifestations and effects have not previ-
ously been explicitly investigated.
This paper proposes an integrating theoretical framework for the
human process of information coordination as an integrating
notion for Information Science. I propose that there exist vari-
ous levels of human information coordination –
1. Information seeking level
2. Information searching (HCI) level
Humans cognitively coordinate their information seeking level
behaviors with their information searching level (human-system
interaction) behaviors; including the recognition and making
sense of and cognitively articulating an information need or a
gap in their knowledge. Humans then coordinate these processes
to construct an information-seeking process. Coordination is
also related to movement through a human information seeking
process. Humans coordinate information in order to move
through their information-seeking process. Part of the informa-
tion-seeking process is the translation of their information prob-
lem into a form that allows them to construct information from
texts in the broadest sense. Bringing the elements of their infor-
mation problem to an effective information-seeking and search-
ing process is essential to an effective coordination process.
For example, a human is seeking information on her family his-
tory. She enters a library or begins to search the Web. To enable
her information-seeking and searching process to move forward
she must understand the dimensions of her information problem
and coordinate her information seeking and searching processes
to the degree that she is able to interact with the functional
structure of the library or Web system. This coordination proc-
ess between information problem and information-
seeking/searching process must take place before a user enters a
keyword into the Web or begins to browse the library shelves.
The output of the Web search or the books found on the library
shelves are coordinated through information feedback by the
information-seeker with her information problem through vari-
ous judgments of the relevance, magnitude and strategic aspects
of the information system’s output (Spink, 1997b).
Establishing and maintaining an effective information seeking
and searching process requires humans to develop effective and
coherent information coordinating behaviors and processes. In
other words, information seekers must coordinate a number of
elements, including their cognitive state, level of knowledge,
their understanding of their information problem, into a coherent
series of activities that may include seeking, searching, retriev-
ing and using information. We know that hand-eye coordination
is a physiological process humans develop from childhood. But,
how do humans learn the process of coordinating their informa-
tion needs into coherent processes of human information seeking
and retrieving behaviors? The information feedback loop forms
the basis of the looping HICB process. How do humans achieve
coordination, including recognizing, making sense of and cogni-
tively articulating an information need or gap in their knowl-
edge, and construct and maintain an information seeking proc-
ess? What is the relationship between information feedback and
HICB?
The informational feedback loop of coordination behavior is one
of the most penetrating fundamentals in the information sciences
and the basis for a theory of interaction. An important theoreti-
cal foundation for the human information coordination process
is information feedback. A basic issue confronting Information
Science is the nature, manifestations and effects of feedback. In
previous publications I reviewed the current state of feedback
research in information science (Spink, 1997a,b; Spink,
1998a,b; Spink & Losee, 1996; Spink & Saracevic, 1998).
Feedback, as a basic element of Information Science, is related
to other basic elements including information, interpretation,
representation, knowledge state, relevance, shifts and interac-
tion. The process of information feedback (Spink & Saracevic,
1998) facilitates human information seeking and searching
6SLQN
75
(Spink, 1997a,b) and binds the human process of coordinating
information seeking and searching.
Effective matching has been seen as the key to effective interac-
tion between humans and information systems. However, infor-
mation systems must do more than match – they must assist
users to coordinate and facilitate effective human information
coordination behaviors. Humans coordinate a loop of actions.
Information coordination is a fundamental human initiated, fa-
cilitated and determined behavior. We are told that humans and
information systems must collaborate. However, unless a human
can coordinate, a collaboration with an information system may
be ineffective. Human and information systems must also col-
laborate to facilitate an effective information coordination.
However, coordination goes beyond collaboration – you may
collaborate on one level, but not facilitate a coordination.
Exploration of HICB is crucial to the development of the field
of Information Science and the design of more effective informa-
tion systems. Human information coordination is a complex
human process to model. Information system designers are in
reality trying to facilitate information-coordinating behavior that
allows humans to effectively coordinate their actions within the
context of their information seeking process. The effectiveness
of human information coordination has been partly determined
by relevance measures such as precision and recall, and can also
be measured by changes in humans’ stages in their information
seeking process (Spink, Greisdorf & Bateman, 1998).
New information system effectiveness measures may be based
on human information coordinating behaviors. Information co-
ordination is a rich notion of active human information behav-
iors. HICB lends value to Information Science research by
bringing together interdisciplinary concepts and integrating
them into a concise model and framework for ongoing studies
and development. The explication of the process of human in-
formation coordinating behavior is fundamental to the develop-
ment of a theoretical framework and model for Informatics. The
modeling of human information coordinating process, in relation
to human information behaviors of seeking and searching, may
assist in the development of information systems that more ef-
fectively enable humans to effectively coordinate their actions
within the context of their information seeking processes.
Further Issues
Further important issues to examine include: How do humans
coordinate the various elements of their information seeking and
searching into a coherent process? What is the relationship be-
tween informational feedback as a coordinating behavior and
interdependence, interpretation, information, purpose and mean-
ing? How in HCI does information feedback facilitate coordinat-
ing behavior?
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